Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz

Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian soldier, military historian and influential military theorist. He is most famous for his military treatise Vom Kriege (On War), which was unfinished at his death. Clausewitz was a realist in many different senses, including realpolitik, and while in some respects a romantic, he also drew heavily on the rationalist ideas of the European Enlightenment. Clausewitz enlisted in the Prussian army in 1792, and in 1793–95 he took part (and was commissioned) in the campaigns of the First Coalition against Revolutionary France. In 1801 he entered the Berlin Military Academy, where he studied under Gerhard von Scharnhorst, the reformer of the Prussian army. He served as a staff officer during the Jena Campaign of 1806, in which Napoleon defeated the Prussian army. After Prussia's defeat, Clausewitz joined the Russian army and fought against France in 1812–13. He returned to Prussia in 1814 and took part in the Waterloo Campaign of 1815. In 1818 he was appointed director of the Berlin Military Academy and became a close adviser to Prince August von Gneisenau. In 1827 he published his historical analysis of the War of Liberation (1813–15) titled Die Feldzüge von 1813 bis 1815 (The Campaigns of 1813–15). He also wrote a history of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29. Clausewitz's magnum opus, On War, is a comprehensive study of the nature, theory and practice of war. It is based on his observation and analysis of historical wars, especially those involving Napoleon. Clausewitz's main thesis is that war is not a mere act of policy but a true political instrument, a continuation of political activity by other means. He argues that war has an inherent tendency to escalate to extremes, but at the same time it is limited by various political and practical factors. He emphasizes the importance of understanding the moral and psychological aspects of war, such as public opinion, morale, leadership, courage, friction and uncertainty. He also discusses various types of war, such as absolute war, limited war, offensive war, defensive war, people's war and guerrilla war. He stresses the dialectical interaction of diverse factors that influence the conduct and outcome of war. He warns against rigidly applying abstract principles and rules to the complex reality of war. Clausewitz died of cholera in 1831 while serving as chief-of-staff to Prince August von Gneisenau during the Polish insurrection. His widow edited his unfinished manuscripts and published them posthumously under the title Vom Kriege in 1832–34. Clausewitz's work has been widely influential in military theory and practice, as well as in political science, international relations, philosophy and history. His ideas have been interpreted and applied by various thinkers and leaders from different historical and cultural contexts.