John XXII

John XXII was the second and longest-reigning Avignon pope, elected by the conclave of cardinals in 1316. He was born as Jacques Duèze or d'Euse in Cahors, France, to a wealthy bourgeois family. He studied canon law and theology in Montpellier and Paris, and taught civil and canon law in Cahors and Toulouse. He became a counselor to Bishop Louis of Toulouse, and later a chancellor of Charles II of Naples. He was appointed as bishop of Fréjus in 1300, and bishop of Avignon in 1310. He was also created cardinal by Clement V in 1312. As pope, John XXII centralized church administration, expanded papal control over the appointment of bishops, and upheld papal authority over imperial elections. He was involved in several conflicts with secular rulers, such as Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria, King Robert of Naples, and King Philip VI of France. He also excommunicated the enemies of Edward II of England, while warning Edward of a possible reassessment of the papal grant of Ireland. He faced opposition from some cardinals and theologians who accused him of heresy for his views on the beatific vision, which he retracted before his death. He also condemned the Spiritual Franciscans, a radical branch of the Franciscan order that advocated absolute poverty for Christ and his apostles. This led some prominent Franciscans, such as William of Ockham and Michael of Cesena, to write against his papal power and join Louis IV's court. ² John XXII was also a patron of arts and sciences, and a promoter of education. He founded the University of Cahors in 1331, and supported the University of Perugia. He also canonized Thomas Aquinas in 1323, after a three-year process. He was interested in astrology and alchemy, and commissioned several works on these subjects. He also reformed the liturgy and the calendar, and issued a bull against witchcraft. ² John XXII died in Avignon on December 4, 1334, at the age of 90. He was buried in the Avignon Cathedral, where his tomb can still be seen today. He was succeeded by Benedict XII, who continued his policies. John XXII is regarded as one of the most influential and controversial popes of the Middle Ages. ²