Mustafa II

Mustafa II was the 22nd sultan of the Ottoman Empire, who reigned from 1695 to 1703. He was the son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan, a Greek Cretan concubine. He was educated in the palace and learned Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Islamic sciences. He also had a passion for poetry and calligraphy. He ascended the throne after the death of his uncle Ahmed II, and inherited a war-torn empire that had lost many territories in Europe after the failed siege of Vienna in 1683. He personally led his armies in several campaigns against the Holy League, composed of Austria, Poland, and Venice. He achieved some victories, such as the capture of Chios, Lipova, and Lugos, and the defense of Azov. However, he also suffered major defeats, such as the Battle of Zenta, where he lost most of Hungary, and the Treaty of Karlowitz, where he had to cede many lands in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. He also faced internal rebellions, such as the revolt of the Janissaries in 1702, and the uprising of the ayans (local notables) in 1703. He was eventually deposed by a coup led by his brother Ahmed III, who had the support of the ulema (religious scholars) and the military. He was confined to the Topkapı Palace, where he died of natural causes on 29 December 1703. He was buried next to his grandmother, Turhan Hatice Sultan, in the New Mosque in Istanbul. He was succeeded by his brother Ahmed III, who initiated a period of reforms and peace known as the Tulip Era. Mustafa II was a controversial figure in Ottoman history, as some historians praised him for his courage and military skills, while others criticized him for his autocratic and incompetent rule. He left behind a legacy of poetry, calligraphy, and architecture, as well as several children, including two future sultans, Mahmud I and Osman III.