Abdul Hamid II

Abdul Hamid II was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a period of decline, with rebellions, wars, and foreign interventions. He promulgated the Ottoman Empire's only constitution in 1876, but suspended it two years later. He modernized the Ottoman Empire in various aspects, such as education, law, bureaucracy, and infrastructure. He also adopted a policy of pan-Islamism to counter Western influence and foster unity among Muslims. He was known as the Red Sultan for his harsh suppression of dissent and massacres of Armenians and other minorities. He was deposed by the Young Turk Revolution in 1909 and spent the last years of his life under house arrest in Beylerbeyi Palace, where he died of pneumonia in 1918. He was buried in the Tomb of Sultan Mahmud II in Fatih, Istanbul. He was the father of 13 children and the husband of 13 wives. He was also a patron of arts and culture, and a collector of books, paintings, and photographs. He was an avid carpenter and made many of his own furniture. He was also interested in music and poetry, and composed some verses himself. He was a controversial figure in Ottoman and Turkish history, and his legacy is still debated by historians and scholars.