Mehmed Fuad Pasha

Mehmed Fuad Pasha was an Ottoman administrator and statesman, who is known for his prominent role in the Tanzimat reforms of the mid-19th-century Ottoman Empire, as well as his leadership during the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war in Syria. He represented a modern Ottoman era, given his openness to European-style modernization as well as the reforms he helped to enact. Among other posts, he served as Grand Vizier, the equivalent of Prime Minister, on two occasions between 1861 and 1866. He is often regarded, along with Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha, as one of the most influential Ottoman statesmen, who favoured a French-inspired civil code for the newly established civil courts in 1868. Fuad Pasha was born in 1814 to a prominent ulema family. His father, Keçecizade Izzet Molla, was a famous poet, and Fuad continued this trend as both a littérateur and a poet. He received a medrese education but had to leave his education when his father was dismissed and banished to the provinces. His mother was a descendant of Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha, a 17th-century grand vizier. He studied in the medical school Tibhane-i Amire for four years with no family support and then proceeded to serve as a doctor for the Admiralty. ¹ Fuad Pasha was fluent in French, which led him to a job as scribe to the governor of Tunisia, Tahir Pasha, from 1832 to 1836. Upon the governor's death, Fuad Pasha entered the service of the Grand Vizier, Mustafa Reşid Pasha, and began working with Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha. His title, "Pasha", was given to a high-ranking member of the Ottoman government and could only be given by the Sultan as an honorary title. Mehmed Emin Aali had been in the Grand Vizier's service for a considerable amount of time. While Mustafa Reşid and Mehmed Emin Aali were on a diplomatic trip to London, Fuad secured a position as the First Translator of the Porte, a position which he held from 1838 to 1852. Fuad continued to study history, modern languages, international law, and political economics with the hope of rising to a diplomatic career. ¹ His translator position led him to become a prótege of Mustafa Reşid's while he was in power for the first two years after the Edict of Gülhane from 1839 to 1841 and again from 1846 to 1852. The Edict was launched by Sultan Abdülmecid I at the recommendation of Mustafa Reşid and effectively began the Tanzimat reforms. Although Mehmed Emin Aali and Fuad were the same age, Fuad was somewhat slower in rising to position. ¹ Fuad Pasha was appointed as the Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1852 and held this position until 1856. He played a key role in the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris that ended the Crimean War. He also supported the Ottoman participation in the Congress of Paris in 1856, where he defended the Ottoman interests and sovereignty. He was also involved in the affairs of the Balkans, where he tried to maintain the Ottoman authority and prevent the Russian expansion. He supported the reforms in the Danubian Principalities and the creation of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859. ¹ In 1860, Fuad Pasha was sent to Syria as the commander-in-chief of the Ottoman forces to suppress the sectarian violence that erupted between the Druze and the Maronites in Mount Lebanon. He also had to deal with the French intervention that aimed to protect the Christians. He managed to restore order and security in the region, but also ordered the execution of many Druze and Muslim leaders who were accused of instigating the massacres. He also established a mixed administrative council for Mount Lebanon, composed of Christian and Muslim representatives, under the supervision of a Christian governor. ¹ Fuad Pasha became the Grand Vizier for the first time in 1861, succeeding Mehmed Emin Aali, who resigned due to ill health. He continued the Tanzimat reforms and introduced new measures to improve the administration, education, finance, and justice systems. He also supported the Ottoman involvement in the International Telegraph Union and the Suez Canal project. He resigned in 1863 due to his disagreements with Sultan Abdülaziz over the budget and the foreign policy. ¹ He returned to the Grand Vizierate in 1865, after the death of Mehmed Emin Aali. He resumed his reform agenda and enacted the Ottoman Land Code of 1867, which aimed to regulate the land ownership and taxation. He also promulgated the Ottoman Penal Code of 1866, which was based on the French model and abolished the death penalty for apostasy. He also prepared the Ottoman Civil Code of 1868, which was also inspired by the French law and regulated the personal status, inheritance, and property rights of the Ottoman subjects. He also established the Council of State, the Supreme Court, and the Court of Cassation to oversee the judicial system. ¹ Fuad Pasha was a fervent supporter of keeping the empire an absolute monarchy, rejecting the ideas of being legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. He often clashed with liberal intellectuals like Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and İbrahim Şinasi. He also faced opposition from the conservative ulema and the Janissaries, who resisted his reforms and accused him of undermining the Islamic law and the Ottoman traditions. He also had to deal with the rising nationalist movements in the Balkans and the Middle East, as well as the foreign interventions and pressures from the European powers. ¹ Sultan Abdülaziz reappointed Fuad to his final term as foreign minister, due to French and British insistence during revolts in Crete and the threat of Russian intervention. He tried to maintain the Ottoman sovereignty and integrity, but also sought to improve the relations with the European states. He also supported the Ottoman participation in the International Exposition of 1867 in Paris, where he represented the empire and received the Legion of Honour from Napoleon III. He also attended the opening ceremony of the Suez Canal in 1869, where he met with the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, and discussed the Ottoman-Egyptian relations. ¹ Fuad Pasha retired due to ill health to Nice, France, where he died in 1869. He was buried in the Eyüp Sultan Mosque in Istanbul, next to his mentor, Mustafa Reşid Pasha. He was remembered as one of the most prominent and influential Ottoman statesmen of the 19th century, who contributed to the modernization and westernization of the empire. He was also praised for his diplomatic skills, his literary talents, and his personal integrity. ¹